Mumbai, June 4 (IANS) In the Great Britain of post World War 2, the cold had started settling in through the cracks of the skies – the same skies, which once witnessed the dreaded Luftwaffe of the Wehrmacht raining a firestorm – for it was the month of February. Many monumental changes for the Indian subcontinent were underway.
The then Prime Minister of UK, Clement Attlee announced the British government’s plan to grant independence to India on February 20, 1947. It wasn’t the digital age, hence, information, things, and people moved relatively slowly in that era. Yet roughly after 5 months, India and Pakistan were granted full-independence.
With independence, came the pain of the Partition of British India, the largest exodus in human history. And since then, the two neighbours have been at loggerheads. Cut to 2025, the past few weeks saw India and Pakistan, the two nuclear armed nations engaging in heavy military action across the border, an extension to the decades old rivalry between the two nations (all of it being provoked by Pakistan).
After the dastardly terrorist attack in Pahalgam, which claimed 26 lives including a Nepali national and Indian tourists, India responded to Pakistan-sponsored terrorism with precision strikes across 9 terror sites in Pakistan in the form of Operation Sindoor, obliterating much of Pakistan’s terror and military infrastructure, in that order, in the subsequent skirmish.
The two of them may have gained independence from the British Raj, practically at the same time but their trajectory has been widely different. India moved forward with impressive force socially, politically, economically, scientifically and the obvious military strength. But one thing which is not much spoken about is the resilience of India’s pop-culture, and the better part of it – the cinema.
Bengal and Maharashtra, similar to their insurmountable freedom movement campaigns, boasted thriving cinema cultures in the undivided India.
While in Maharashtra, Himanshu Rai’s Bombay Talkies and V. Shantaram’s Prabhat Film Company took the baton from the father of Indian cinema, Dadasaheb Phalke, in Kolkata New Theatres held the fort.
Prabhat Film Company, the oldest of them, was founded in 1929 in Pune, the same year when the Wall Street Crash happened. While the US financial system was shaken to its core, India was fighting an intense social and political battle against the Britishers with the declaration of Purna Swaraj in the same year.
As the freedom movement intensified, Prabhat Film Company emerged as the moral compass in the cultural landscape of the country at that time with many socially relevant films. It helped Indian cinema transition from silent films to Talkies. New Theatres followed suit shortly in 1931, with Bombay Talkies coming into force in 1934.
Meanwhile, being the youngest, and perhaps the most affluent of all three, Bombay Talkies was the first studio of India to have a structure similar to modern corporations, and a streamlined process of filmmaking aligned with international standards.
Bombay Talkies, the current day Malad suburb of Mumbai, boasted echo-proof stages, laboratories, editing rooms and a preview theater, all housed within those prepossessing facades, world-class technicians buzzing with ideas, roamed around the lanes of the studio, sometimes wading through the Art Deco cars, between the Victorian structures. The metal equipment, workers of the studio, technicians, all of them worked like perfect clockwork to give India its first superstar, the one from within, the one who had spent days at end working inside the laboratories of the studio.
Ashok Kumar, a lab technician at Bombay Talkies, witnessed a dramatic turn in his life one fine day when he was offered to play the role of male lead in ‘Jeevan Naiya’. The production of the film slipped into hellfire after its leading lady, Devika Rani, who was also the wife of the studio head Himanshu Rai, eloped with her love interest, the supposed male lead of ‘Jeevan Naiya’. After much back and forth, Ashok Kumar was made the lead in the film.
Following his debut in 1936, Ashok Kumar witnessed a meteoric rise in Hindi cinema, and became the first superstar of Hindi cinema. His story of rise, along with Bombay Talkies has been fictionalised in Prime Video’s ‘Jubilee’.
Things went smoothly until the German dictator, Hitler with an invincible Nazi Armed Forces – the Wehrmacht consisting of the Heer (army), the Luftwaffe (air force), and the Kriegsmarine (navy) – invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. France and Britain declared War on Germany effectively setting the stage for the European, Mediterranean and Pacific theatres during World War 2.
The British empire directed all funds from its colonies to the war effort. India, being a part of the British empire, faced the heat. Losses mounted for Bombay Talkies, and Himanshu Rai eventually passed away after a nervous breakdown. This was the first major set-back for Hindi cinema.
World War II changed the face of geo-politics after the ceasefire on September 2, 1945, and triggered a long era of cold war between hegemonic powers of the USA and the USSR. Back home, for Indian cinema, things changed forever. By 1943, Ashok Kumar had completely branched out from Bombay Talkies along with Sashadhar Mukherjee laying the foundation for their studio Filmistan, which was unethically started under the guise of Bombay Talkies. A huge fight broke out between Ashok Kumar, Sashadhar Mukherjee and Devika Rani. Productions of major films were alternated between Filmistan and Bombay Talkies in a bid to reunite them but nothing seemed to be working.
However, Bombay Talkies had their next big superstar waiting in the wings. Dilip Kumar made his debut in 1944, slowly moving through the surface and laying the groundwork for what would become one of the greatest innings in Hindi cinema.
This was followed by the rise of Madhubala. Many years later, Dilip and Madhubala would join forces for the epic historical fiction ‘Mughal-e-Azam’.
While the stars of Bombay Talkies were on the rise, the studio was going through difficult times. The end of World War II also brought the eventual closure of Bombay Talkies. The studio closed, but the Hindi cinema was moving forward with a rapid expansion.
V. Shantaram (after splitting from the members of Prabhat Film Company) continued to mount several films. His new production house, Rajkamal Kalamandir, and New Theatres were still putting up a rugged fight, and by now Indian cinema also had AVM Productions erecting another of its solid pillars in the Kodambakkam area of Chennai. They were giving their all to keep the spirit of cinema alive in the country.
If Bombay Talkies gave Ashok Kumar, Madhubala, Mehmood Ali, Devika Rani, and upto a certain extent Raj Kapoor (he worked as an assistant director to Amiya Chakravarty at Bombay Talkies), Prabhat Film Company gave titans like Guru Dutt, Dev Anand to Hindi cinema.
While in Chennai AVM Productions produced legends like Rajinikanth, Sivaji Ganesan, Kamal Haasan, and Vyjayanthimala. Interestingly, Rajinikanth was reportedly once stopped from entering the AVM Studios premises by a watchman just because the legend in making back then didn’t have a car. Fate does work in mysterious ways.
While the period before the Partition in Hindi cinema was dominated by Bengalis, a new Tsunami of Peshawari talents hit the shore majorly in the Post-Partition era. Dilip Kumar and Prithviraj Kapoor were the fresh talents on the horizon. Though they had migrated to Mumbai before the Partition, they effectively followed Ashok Kumar’s suit. Dilip Kumar went on to become a revered and widely respected figure in Hindi cinema. Prithviraj Kapoor, took a different trajectory, becoming the patriarch of the first film dynasty of Hindi cinema, the Kapoor Family.
After the Partition, many talents migrated between the two countries, through the current Indo-Pak border in the west, and the present day India-Bangladesh border, then East Pakistan.
While Islamabad and Dhaka failed to establish successful film industries, Mumbai, India’s economic engine, saw a rapidly flourishing film industry. However, Pakistan did manage to mount a decent television industry in the later years.
Ashok Kumar also brought his younger brother, Kishore Kumar along with him, another gem of Indian cinema, and a master of all trades including acting, singing and music direction.
By 1956, AVM Productions was joined by Prasad Studios and Prasad Film Labs across the street in Chennai on Arunachalam road, taking the south cinema industry to unprecedented levels.
10 years into independence, Indian cinema got the ticket to one of the Big Three Film Festivals. V. Shantaram’s iconic film ‘Do Ankhen Barah Haath’, released in 1957, clinched the Silver Bear at the 8th Berlin International Film Festival, and the Samuel Goldwyn International Film Award at the 16th Golden Globe Awards.
Then came 1958, the year when Pakistan was rattled by its first military coup as Iskander Ali Mirza, the president of Pakistan was toppled by Muhammad Ayub Khan, the commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Army. The same year, India secured its first nomination at the Oscars for ‘Mother India’ setting a benchmark for our cinema.
Things seemed to be getting better for India. In 1960 came ‘Mughal-e-Azam’ following multiple delays in its production. Director K. Asif had a penchant for aesthetics and purism, and often got into huge debates with producers of the film, the Shapoorji Pallonji group further delaying its production and release by more than 10 years. After multiple set-backs and hurdles, ‘Mughal-e-Azam’ released on August 5, 1960, and served as a watershed moment in India’s cinematic history.
Everything from K. Asif’s vision, the music by Naushad, the performances by Prithviraj Kapoor, Dilip Kumar and Madhubala, the production design, set new standards in Hindi cinema, which is difficult to match-up to even in the current day and age. In a way, ‘Mughal-e-Azam’, which was released after a delay of 13 years, became a mirror of Indian cinema’s resilience in the face of adversities.
While internally, the nation was still walking on its wobbly legs of industrialisation, literacy, science and tech, and cinema, tensions were brewing along the north and northeast border of the country.
India’s expansionist neighbour, People’s Republic of China occupied the deserted Aksai Chin territory of India in the north, and the Tawang region in the northeast triggering the Indo-Sino war in 1962.
The war came at a critical juncture for both the nations, while India was still trying to make sense of the world, being a 15 year old independent country, Mao Zhedong’s China was recovering from the after-effects of the Chinese famine courtesy his Great Leap Forward. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru completely misread China and the situation, denying air-support to Indian troops along the eastern border. India lost the war.
In addition, the absence of its big brother and constant ally, the USSR, owing to the Cuban Missile Crisis during the Cold War, weighed heavily on India’s defeat.
The war, although a set-back, didn’t bog Indian cinema down. After the Indo-Sino war, mainstream masala Hindi cinema played a crucial part in putting the morale of the nation back on track.
Indian cinema went on to diversify its profile fuelled by regional influences. Different thought leaders in each Telugu, Hindi, Tamil, Marathi, Bengali cinema like Prithviraj Kapoor, NTR, AGR, Mani Ratnam, Satyajit Ray and Ritwik Ghatak worked in their capacity to strengthen Indian cinema at multiple fronts.
In all of this, Indian cinema further branched out into independent cinema fuelled by the parallel film movement. The movement, largely inspired by Italian Neorealism, brought to the fore the social challenges and inequalities in the country, drawing the audience’s attention to issues that mattered the most.
The mid-60s brought India its second war, this time with its notorious neighbour, Pakistan. India had a decisive victory against Pakistan in the 1965 war. The following year, Rajesh Khanna made his debut, and went on to become the next big superstar after the Indo-Sino war as Hindi cinema turned towards lighter content taking a departure from the ‘Pyaasa’ and ‘Kaagaz Ke Phool’ of the world.
The 70s started on yet another thrilling note for India and Indian cinema. Another war, which defined India’s military strength as it locked horns with the Pakistan military in East Pakistan in 1971. This time, the USSR made no mistake, it came to India’s rescue against the US-backed Pakistan military. As India prepared to march into East Pakistan to liberate and carve out the current day Bangladesh, the USSR sent a 40-fleet nuclear armed navy in the Indian Ocean, sending the US warships back home with their tail between their legs.
The first masala movie of Hindi cinema, ‘Yaadon Ki Baarat’ released in 1973, opening up a new market, and triggering new sensibilities in the audience. Bollywood superstar Aamir Khan also made his debut as a child artiste in this film. The same year, Hindi cinema legend Amitabh Bachchan became the top-tier star of Hindi cinema courtesy his film ‘Zanjeer’.
2 years later, Big B consolidated his stardom with ‘Deewaar’ at the start of the year. Bachchan was the new sensation in the market all the while as Rajesh Khanna’s stardom plummeted, with veteran screenwriters Salim-Javed being the chief architects behind Bachchan’s stardom.
The same year also brought India, one of the darkest chapters in its largely democratic set-up, the Emergency imposed by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Press freedom was curbed, artists were banned, particularly the late cinema legend Kishore Kumar, the brother of Ashok Kumar.
Indira suspended certain Articles and Sections of India’s Constitution in order to consolidate her power. Specifically, the right to freedom (Articles 19, 20, 21, and 22) were suspended, as well as the right to property (Article 31).
However, cinema in India by this time had found the means to sustain. 8 months into 1975, Hindi cinema released one of its most iconic movies, ‘Sholay’ on Independence Day. The film, India’s first Spaghetti Western film, was a huge risk venture given that director Ramesh Sippy set-up an entire township to produce the film, create its rustic universe, and bring it to life.
While initially, ‘Sholay’ didn’t seem to work over the weekend, by Monday, it gained momentum. In no time, there was a barrage of people swarming to the theatres to see the film. The film hooked them as they returned to theatres for repeated viewings. The film’s climax was also changed slightly to leverage the public demand, ensuring a steady influx of audience of all ages. ‘Sholay’ emerged as the next big thing in the tentpole space of Hindi cinema after ‘Mughal-e-Azam’.
Both the films are considered to be textbooks in Hindi filmmaking inspiring generations of filmmakers in the country.
The Emergency ended on March 21, 1977 foreshadowing the military dictatorship of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan. While Indira suffocated the nation through Constitutional Dictatorship, Zia-ul-Haq overthrew Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, the father of Benazir Bhutto.
The despot later got Zulfiqar hanged in a murder case through his hand-picked judges, and went ahead with his nefarious plan of Islamization of Pakistan.
He also gave a specific shape to Pakistan’s doctrine of ‘Bleed India Through A Thousand Cuts’. It involves asymmetrical warfare, militancy and infiltration, and instigating religio-political turmoil in India’s border states of Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab, the consequences of which are the Khalistan Movement and the Kashmir insurgency.
The 80s were marked by a lull, as creative ideas seemed to dry up, and Hindi cinema turned to the south to draw inspiration and the masses to the theatres. The introduction of the VCR, added salt to the injury, piracy peaked, as cinemas suffered.
Yet Hindi cinema showed tremendous character, Sunny Deol promised considerable footfalls to the theatres despite the lull. Bollywood’s ubercool Bhidu, Jackie Shroff and Anil Kapoor also rose to stardom during this period. The two also collaborated on several films including the cult-classic ‘Parinda’.
The later half of the decade also marked a long innings of political instability in the country closing in with the Kashmir insurgency in 1989, one of the deepest wounds Pakistan has given to its largely pacifist neighbour.
The attack in Pahalgam on April 22, 2025 was the most recent cut on India, the price of which Pakistan heavily paid.
By the late 80s, Salman Khan, Aamir Khan and Akshay Kumar made their debuts, promising some of the longest innings in Hindi cinema.
At the onset of the 1990s, India was staring at another crisis as foreign exchange reserves dwindled. India made a decision to open its economy in 1991, serving as the new dawn in the Indian economy. The same year, another Bollywood superstar Ajay Devgn made his debut with ‘Phool Aur Kaante’.
The next year, “that guy” from Delhi, the son of an Indian freedom fighter, came to Mumbai and made his Bollywood debut in 1992 with ‘Deewana’. 1992 saw 4 releases of Shah Rukh Khan ‘Deewana’, ‘Chamatkar’, ‘Dil Aashna Hai’ and ‘Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman’.
Together, SRK, Salman and Aamir formed the Big 3 of Bollywood. The 90s also saw the television going mainstream with private broadcasters entering the game. Hindi television produced some of its best content in this era including ‘Dekh Bhai Dekh’, ‘Filmi Chakkar’, ‘Tu Tu Main Main’ and ‘Hum Paanch’.
SRK’s iconic film ‘Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge’, in which he co-starred with Kajol, released in the mid 90s, and marked the debut of Aditya Chopra, the current YRF-head honcho, and the creator of cinema, in a larger sense.
In 1998, Indian cinema, particularly the Hindi cinema, was granted ‘industry’ status, making it easier and transparent for the makers to procure finances from the banks to make films.
But not all things were hunky-dory. While the 90s remains the famed decade of technological advancement, and the expansion of corporations, industries, the nation sustained many dents in terms of its political, and social system with the organised crime in Mumbai reaching its peak. Following the social upheaval surrounding Ayodhya, India’s entertainment capital was rocked by 7 serial blasts in 1993. The blasts were executed by Dawood Ibrahim and Pakistan’s intelligence agency, ISI.
The blasts led to the enactment of the Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act (MCOCA) in 1999, in order to curb organised crime and terrorism in Maharashtra.
The same year, India was once again forced to go to war with Pakistan, when Pakistani troops, disguised as militants, infiltrated the Indian-administered Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir.
India, keeping up with the tradition, battered its neighbour till it slipped into another coup d’état, this time by Pervez Musharraf.
From 1984 with the assassination of Indira Gandhi, the exodus of Kashmiri Pandits in 1990, the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in 1991, the rise of Mumbai underworld in parallel up until the Kargil war in 1999, the nation was rocked by social, political, and security turmoil. Yet India held on to its nerves.
By the 2000s, the American studios made their way to India, bringing a new wave of urban content. Hindi television though took a hit in terms of quality of its content, it continued to establish a thriving industry with lucrative opportunities and remuneration for the artistes.
All the way up to 2025, Indian cinema continues to accumulate soft power across the globe. While Pakistan spent its last penny, and its last youth in its pursuit of destroying its neighbour, India has protected its cinematic heritage – the Prabhat Film Company today serves as the campus for the Film and Television Institute of India in Pune.
Megastars like Shah Rukh Khan, Amitabh Bachchan, Rajinikanth, Irrfan Khan, Ulganayagan Kamal Haasan, Aamir Khan, Mammootty, and filmmakers like Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Basu Chatterjee, Mani Ratnam, and Yash Chopra are the crown jewels of Indian cinema, and command a massive respect from film circuits across the globe.
The Indian representation in Grammy, Cannes, Berlinale, Oscars and Emmy International has seen an impressive uptick in the past few years. Satyajit Ray, A. R. Rahman, S. S. Rajamouli, Anurag Kashyap and Payal Kapadia are some of the names which make India proud globally.
Indian cinema is not an empire that was built in a day. The blood and sweat of each artist from top billed cast to the spot boy at the lower rung, have cemented the bricks of resilience, to erect the fortified confederacies of Indian cinema’s regional, parallel and mainstream branches.
–IANS
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